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A molecular phylogenetic and phylogeographic study of two forms of Calliptamus barbarus (Costa 1836) (Orthoptera: Acrididae, Calliptaminae) from two regions of Algeria
(2016) Moad, ROUIBAH; Alejandro, López-López; Juan, José Presa; Salaheddine, DOUMANDJI
Calliptamus barbarus (Orthoptera: Acrididae) is the most polymorphic species within the genus Calliptamus. It shows a morphological polymorphism (three hind femoral spots, or only one hind femoral spot). Several studies have been made in order to distinguish the two forms: morphometry, number of ovarioles, sound production, protein and enzyme system. The aim of our work is to assess whether the two forms can be considered as different taxa and to perform a molecular phylogenetic study of two populations of C. barbarus collected from two different Algerian localities. No clear genetic differentiation was found between the samples with different morphologies. Additionally, the samples from Algeria do not form a monophyletic sister clade compared to the one formed by the sequences from GenBank from other geographical regions. Despite the morphological differences shown between the two populations, our molecular study indicates that there are no differences at a molecular level using the two mitochondrial genes COI and 16S.
Acaricidal Activity of Aqueous Extracts against the mite of date palm Oligonychus afrasiaticus Meg (Acari: Tetranychidae)
(Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies 2015; 3(6): 113-117, 2015) Lakhdari, Wassima; Dehliz, A; Acheuk, F; Soud, A; Hammi, H; Mlik, R; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia
The use of chemical products to fight against insects raises several concerns related to the environment, human health, non-target species and development of resistant pest populations. The use of bio-pesticides may reduce the risks of pests and safeguard biodiversity. This experiment was conducted with the objective to study the effect of aqueous plant extracts from the southeast region of Algeria (Zygophyllum album L, Cotula cinerea Del and Limoniatrum guyonianum Del) on the mortality of the date palm mite (Oligonychus afrasiaticus). The trial was conducted at the Laboratory of Plant Protection of INRAA. The five doses (1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5%) were tested on adults of phytophagous. The results show that the extracts of plants and C. cinerae and L. guyonianum do not show an effect on the pest. Unlike, Z. album showed a very significant effect on the mite by a mortality rate of 76%.
Analyse de la compétitivité de la filière de viande de volailles en Algérie : tentatives d’explication d’une déstructuration chronique
(2013-06) KACI, Ahcène; CHERIET, Foued
Dans cet article, nous nous basons sur les apports théoriques des approches Porterienne et RBV pour expliquer la non-compétitivité de la filière avicole algérienne. Sur le plan empirique, notre travail est axé sur deux séries d’enquêtes par entretiens, menées en 2007 et en 2010. Les principaux résultats dégagés mettent en exergue une dépendance quasi-totale du modèle avicole intensif vis-à-vis du système agroalimentaire mondial, la faiblesse technique de la compétitivité des élevages avicoles, l’absence d’organisation de la profession et l’incapacité d’innovation de l’ensemble des acteurs de la filière à la fois sur un plan technique et surtout sur le plan organisationnel. Ce travail a, entre autres, permis d’identifier les facteurs susceptibles d’assurer une meilleure compétitivité du modèle avicole algérien à l’ère de la mondialisation et de la régionalisation.
ANTAGONISTIC ACTIVITY OF TWO BACILLUS SP. STRAINS ISOLATED FROM AN ALGERIAN SOIL TOWARDS THE MIGRATORY LOCUST LOCUSTA MIGRATORIA (LINNAEUS 1758)
(2016) OULEBSIR-MOHAND KACI, Hakima; TALBI-KHEMILI, Souad; GANA-KEBBOUCHE, Salima; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia
The aim of our study is to isolate, purify and characterize two entomopathogenic bacterial strains of the genus Bacillus from the soil of Adrar in the Algerian Sahara. The molecular characterization of the isolated strains was carried out by DNA isolation, PCR and sequencing of 16S rRNA gene, followed by a phylogenetic analysis. After that, the study of the bacteria toxicity on the fifth larvae stage of Locusta migratoria was conducted by assessing rates of mortality, LT50 and LC50. The phylogenetic analysis showed that the two strains (Strain-B1 and Strain -B2) were identified as Bacillus sp. (HE799656) and Bacillus sp. (HE805963), respectively, with a very high similarity (99%) with the strains Bacillus thuringiensis (NR_043403) and Bacillus weihenstephanensis (NR_024697). Besides, the results of toxicity tests showed that larvae of L. migratoria are influenced by the two isolated bacterial strains. This action is more pronounced with the Bacillus sp. strain-B1 (HE799656) compared to Bacillus sp. strain-B2 (HE805963). Examination of TL50 shows that these times vary depending on the bacteria and concentrations applied. Similarly, the LC50 are closely related with time and they also vary depending on the bacterial strain tested.
Biocontrol test against the leaf minerof tomato Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) by using entomopathogenic fungi in the Algerian Sahara
(2016) Lakhdari, W; Dehliz, A; Acheuk, F; Mlik, R; Hammi, H; Matallah, S; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia
Devastating insects constitute one of strains for cultivate tomato. Among these insects, tomato leafminer (T. absoluta) has been recently introduced in Algeria (2008), it constitute a challenge for both agricultures and scientists. Firstly, this insect is introduced without their natural enemies which may reduce their damage. Secondly, this species has developed insecticide resistance to many active matters. To contribute to establish a control strategy for T. absoluta we have made an inventory of their enthomopathogenic fungi. Two fungi were identified among others taken from adults and pupae. These fungi are Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium sp. A study was conducted in laboratory of plant pathology to recognize the efficiency of these antagonists. These species had unregistered a mortality mounts of 100 % in 6 days.
BIODIVERSITE ORTHOPTEROLOGIQUE DANS QUELQUES STATIONS DU SAHARA ALGERIEN (BISKRA, ADRAR, DJANET ET TAMANRASSET)
(2014) DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia; DOUMANDJI, Salaheddine; CHEBLI, A; ABDOUALI, R; KOURIM, M.A; SID-AMAR, AHMED; DOUMANDJI, S
La biodiversité orthoptérologique en Algérie est remarquable et varie quantitativement et qualitativement d’un étage bioclimatique à un autre. Nous nous sommes intéressés plus particulièrement à l’acridofaune de 4 régions du Sahara algérien appartenant à l’étage bioclimatique saharienne à hiver tempéré. Il s’agit de Biskra, située à 450 Km au S.E. d’Alger, d’Adrar située à 1543 Km au S.W. de la capitale, Djanet distante de 2000 km au sud est algérien et de Tamanrasset se trouvant à l’extrême sud algérien à 2200 Km d’Alger. Au cours de nos échantillonnages pour l’étude du criquet pèlerin Schistocerca gregaria Forskal, à l’état solitaire et grégaire et du criquet migrateur Locusta migratoria cinarescens nous avons noté 27 espèces d’orthoptères à Biskra dont Sphodromerus cruentatus, 32 à Adrar citons Pseudosphingonotus savigny, 11 à Djanet avecTridactylus variegatus et 19 à Tamanrasset dont Poecilocerus bufonicus hyeroglyphicus.
DIET’S STUDY FOR SCHISTOCERCA GREGARIA (FORSKAL, 1775) (CYRTACANTHACRIDINAE, ACRIDIDAE) AT LEVEL OF BOTH STATIONS IN REGION OF TAMANRASSET (HOGGAR)
(2014) LAZAR, M; BENSAAD, H; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia; BENZEHRA, A
Vegetation interest for desert locust Schistocerca Gregaria studied by analyse method of digestive continuous at level of the two stations (Oued Amdad and Oued Arak) situated in region of Tamanrasset (Hoggar) in Algerian South known as zones of reproduction of potentilla closer each other and are different by dominance of various vegetable species which are growing, showed in spite of presence of several vegetable species at level of both stations, diet of solitary locust populations harvested in both study stations is not very varied and only 4 vegetable species at Oued Amded and 6 ones at Oued Arak had been observed in ingestion of studied individuals. As well, at level of Oued Amded station, females have consumed 4 vegetable species and males have consumed only 2 among the 12 existing. In station of Oued Arak, females and males have consumed 5 vegetables species on the 10 existing. The most consumed vegetable specie as well as by females and by males in both stations is Schouwia thebaica.
Diversity and Ecology of Orthoptera of Some Agricultural Areas in Northern Algeria
(2014) HAMADI, Kamel; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia
A study on the orthopterologic diversity was performed in three different agro-ecosystems in northern Algeria, located at Baba-Ali, Ain-Taya and Cap-Djinet. The first two stations are part of the plain of Mitidja. Inventories carried out were conducted over a period of 12 months; November-December 1996/1997 for Baba-Ali and Ain-Taya stations, and September-August 2010/2011 for Cap-Djinet station. The settlement of the identified orthopteric revealed a total of 25 species, 8 Ensifera and 17 Caelifera. Acrididae Family accounts only 15 species are spread over 6 subfamilies, 60% of the identified orthopterofauna. The highest total richness and the specific average richness per survey and station values were recorded in October 1997: 8 – 4, 2 Baba-Ali, 10-5,2 Ain-Taya; and in August 2011: 13 – 6,2 Cap-Djinet. According to the Shannon-Weaver diversity index, the surveyed areas have a diverse orthopterofauna particularly in spring and autumn when the number of individuals is equally distributed between species (0,62 < E < 0, 97).
Diversity and Ecology of Orthoptera of Some Agricultural Areas in Northern Algeria
(IJIAR, 2016) HAMADI, Kamel; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia
A study on the orthopterologic diversity was performed in three different agro-ecosystems in northern Algeria, located at Baba-Ali, Ain-Taya and Cap-Djinet. The first two stations are part of the plain of Mitidja. Inventories carried out were conducted over a period of 12 months; November-December 1996/1997 for Baba-Ali and Ain-Taya stations, and September-August 2010/2011 for Cap-Djinet station. The settlement of the identified orthopteric revealed a total of 25 species, 8 Ensifera and 17 Caelifera. Acrididae Family accounts only 15 species are spread over 6 subfamilies, 60% of the identified orthopterofauna. The highest total richness and the specific average richness per survey and station values were recorded in October 1997: 8 – 4, 2 Baba-Ali, 10-5,2 Ain-Taya; and in August 2011: 13 – 6,2 Cap-Djinet. According to the Shannon-Weaver diversity index, the surveyed areas have a diverse orthopterofauna particularly in spring and autumn when the number of individuals is equally distributed between species (0,62 < E < 0, 97).
Diversity and Richness of Rodent Communities in Various Landscapes of Touggourt Area (Southeast Algeria)
(2015) Moussa, Hadjoudj; Karim, Souttou; Salaheddine, DOUMANDJI
Our study presents the species diversity of rodent communities from palm groves and sand dunes in a desert area (Touggourt, Southeast Algeria). Samples were collected from four stations: two sites of sand dunes and tow sites of palm groves. The method of random trapping was performed using 24 cages of Besançon Technique Service (BTS) installed at each station. All captured species were of the family Muridae and belonged to two subfamilies: Murinae and Gerbillinae. The most common species at all stations was Gerbillus nanus (31 specimens), followed by Rattus rattus (23 specimens) and Gerbillus tarabuli (18 specimens). The murine species Rattus rattus and Mus spretus were found at agriculture sites (palm groves) while the Gerbillinae Gerbillus nanus, Gerbillus gerbillus and Gerbillus tarabuli preferred natural environments (sand dunes) where the soil was light and sandy.
Effect of Spirulina platensis ingestion on the abnormal biochemical and oxidative stress parameters in the pancreas and liver of alloxaninduced diabetic rats
(Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group, 2017-03-16) Bitam, Arezki; Bitam, Arezki
Context: Previous studies have shown that Spirulina platensis Gomont (Phormidiaceae) (SP) extract has beneficial effects on many disease conditions. The putative protective effects of SP were investigated in diabetic rats. Objective: The current study investigates the antioxidant effects of SP in diabetic Wistar rats. Materials and methods: Alloxan monohydrate (150 mg/kg body weight) was intraperitoneally administrated to induce diabetes. An aqueous suspension of SP powder in distillate water (10% w/v) was administrated orally by gavage (1 mL/day) for 50 days. Histopathological, biochemical and antioxidant analyses were performed. Glycemia, liver function and HOMA-IR were assessed using Spinreact and ELISA kits. Results: SP exhibited high-antioxidant activity. The IC50 values of the SP aqueous extract were 70.40 and 45.69 mg/L compared to those of the standard antioxidant BHT, which were 27.97 and 19.77 mg/L, for the DPPH and ABTS tests, respectively. The diabetic animals showed a significant increase in glycaemia (from 4.05 to 4.28 g/L) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (50.17mmol/g protein) levels. Treatment with SP significantly reduced glycaemia by 79% and liver function markers [glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT), glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) and alkaline phosphatase (Alk-p)]) by 25, 36 and 20%, respectively, compared to that of the controls. There was a significant increase in superoxide dismutase (48%), total antioxidant status (43%), glutathione peroxidase (37%) and glutathione reductase (16%) in the diabetic rats treated with SP. Discussion and conclusion: These results showed that SP has high antioxidant activity, free radical scavenging, antihyperglycemic and hepatoprotective effects in diabetes.
Ethnobotanical study of some plants used in traditional medicine in the region of Oued Righ (Algerian Sahara)
(2016) Lakhdari, W; Dehliz, A; Acheuk, F; Mlik, R; Hammi, H; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia; Gheriani, S; Berrekbia, M; Guermit, K; Chergui, S
The present study aims to census the ethnomedicinal plants occurring in the local traditional medicine of Oued Righ region in the Algerian Sahara. The information on medicinal uses of plants is based on a field survey, interviews, structured questionnaires and discussion with traditional healers and knowledgeable. This investigation made it possible to inventory 53 species belonging to 30 botanical families. Chenopodiaceae is the most dominant family that was used to treat various illnesses with a rate of 23.33 %; followed by the family of Asteraceae and Fabaceae with 16,66 %, Poaceae and Zygophyllaceae both with a rate of 13,33 %. These medicinal plants are prepared in various forms such as decoction, infusion, compress, inhalation, ointment, herb tea; which are made from sheets, stems, flowers, boughs, fruits, roots. The dominant diseases that can be treated with more than two plants are; Indigestion, constipation, belly and stomach pain; Injury, wounds and skin diseases; diarrhea.
FIRST APPROACH FOR STUDYING THE IMPACTS OF THE NUCLEAR TESTS ON INSECTS IN REGGANE, ALGERIA
(2016) CHEBLI, A; Einor, D; Owens, M. C; DOUMANDJI, Salaheddine; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia; Mousseau, T. A
Herein, we report the initial findings of a study of two insect species (the Sahara bee Apis mellifera sahariensis and the silverfish Lepisma saccharina) collected from the site of the 1960 Reggane nuclear test site in Algeria. These samples were analysed via single-cell electrophoresis for DNA damage resulting from radiation exposure due to nuclear tests. Our results show statistically significant variation (p<0.001) in DNA damage in the silverfish compared to control organisms, but no such effect was found in the Sahara bee. This study represents what we believe to be the first of its kind regarding the ecological effects of the 1960 Reggane nuclear test and will be expanded upon in future research. Overall we call for further in-depth studies of the desert populations of various taxa including birds and mammals.
First spatial distribution of nosemosis (Nosema sp) infected local bee, Apis mellifera intermissa L. in Algeria
(2016) CHAHBAR, M; TEFIEL, H; ADIDOU-CHAHBAR, N; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia; GAOUAR, S.B.S
FOOD DIET OF DOCIOSTAURUS MAROCCANUS THUMBERG, 1815 (ORTHOPTERA, ACRIDIDAE) IN ITS GREGARIOUS STATE: A STUDY IN SIDI BELABBES REGION, ALGERIA (2010)
(2014) CHAOUCH, A; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia; ALLAL-BENFEKIH, L
This study of diet and food preferences in the gregarious phase of Dociostaurus maroccanus (THUMBERG, 1815), was carried out in the wild during the months of June and July 2010 in the region of Marhoum (State of Sidi Bel Abbes). The determination of the diet and food choice was made by the method of faeces content analysis, which is based on the recognition of epidermises fragments of the consumed plants, using alight microscope. The results of this study show that D.maroccanus is a polyphagous species whose adult have a tendency to overconsume of Poaceae (Gramineae). Poaceae account for a large part in the diet of adult males and females of the gregarious populations with over 60% of the total food spectrum, compared with the other consumed plant families which are very diverse but whose consumption frequencies are very low. Regardless of the plant species, males and females show no specific food choices, especially in the consumption of Dicotyledons. Among Poaceae species, and compared to other species, Lolium multiflorum is highly consumed both by males and females, with the exception of Stipa parviflora whose frequency of consumption is different.
HISTOPATHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AN ALGERIAN STRAIN OF BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS ON THE GUT OF ANACRIDIUM AEGYPTIUM ( ORTHOPTERA, ACRIDIDAE). INTEREST FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
(2014) SAIDI-TOUATI, MAHDIA; NATECHE, FARIDA; ABDERRAHMANI, AHMED; HAMADI, KAMEL; GEORGE, COLAS; BOUFERSAOUI, ABDELKADER; DJENANE, ZAHIA; HAMMANA, SOUKAINA; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia
Locust’s biocontrol requires identification of efficient bacterial strains able to be used against these ravagers. In this study, we analyzed the impact of an algerian strain of B. thuringiensis called TIM14 on the gut of Anacridium aegyptium. We observed that A.aegyptium infestation with TIM14 induced a lytic activity on the tegument and the cuticle followed by insect’s demise. In conclusion, our results suggest that the local B.thuringiensis strain TIM14 would be active through different enzymatic activities involving the chitinase that induces death of this orthoptera.
Host Plant Determination of Brachytrupes megacephalus Lefebvre, 1827 (Orthoptera, Grillinae) Using Faeces Analysis in the Region of Oued Righ (Algerian Sahara)
(American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 15 (2): 271-277, 2015, 2015) Lakhdari, Wassima; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia; Dahliz, A; DOUMANDJI, Salaheddine; Bendifellah, L; Bouchikh, Y; Hammi, H; Soud, A; Mlik
In the southeast of the algerian Sahara (Touggourt), the host plant determination of Brachytrupes megacephalus was studied by faeces analysis (microscopic observations). The experimentation was conducted in mid August until the end of September 2014. The main results of faeces analysis showed that the plants consumed by B. megacephalus belong to 8 families: Arecaceae (Phoenix dactylifera), Apocynaceae (Nerium oleander), Asteraceae (Chrysanthemum), Myoporaceae (Myoporum sandwicense), Plumbaginaceae (Armeria maritima), Rosaceae (Prunus armeniaca), Solanaceae (Solanum lycopersicum) and Triochylaceae (Cherry fantasia and White Kristina). Phoenix dactylifera is the most preferred host species by the adults of Brachytrupes megacephalus, with a consumption rate 85,87%.
Impact of Jacobiascalybica’sattacks on the physiology of the vine leaf.
(2016) Guendez-Kermia, Ramila; Setbel, Samira; Morsli, Samira; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia
During the inventory undertaken in Algeria on the vine, the green leafhopper proved to be a new bio aggressor on this crop. Indeed, the first observations on vines date back to July 2002 and renewed in 2003 and 2004 [4], in the vineyards of the Western Mitija where the insect has spread rapidly throughout the country ([6]; [7]; First data JacobiascaLybica ( Bergevin&Zanon ) (Homoptera , Jassidae ) on Vine in Algeria; [8]). Jacobiascalybicaresponsible of the grillure on the vine leaves, generates considerable damages on the leaf after each attack. Given the climate change,These studies were made during the wine-making campaigns on 2013, 2014 and 2015 and having for objectives of: · Consolidate the searches undertaken during the wine-making campaign in 2007, on the fluctuation in the populations of the green leafhopper, responsible of the grillure but this time on the grape varieties of local product not imported one and observe the effect of the climate change on this harmful. · Determine the influence of the vigour of stocks and their sensibilities to this insect. · Demonstrate the effect of the attacks of this devastator on the limb physiology. These studies were conducted through the seasonal evolution of the green leafhopper on the vine variety: cinsaut, grenache and carignan by accounting larvas on the young and old leaves of the same vine variety studied by using the similar attractive traps to the sexual traps type INRA. They are established by a plastic shelter in the shape of tent, at the bottom there is a sticky sheet. The shelter is of bright yellow color. This technic permits to trap the green adults of leafhopper by chromatic attraction. The samplings were made once a week during three wine-producing campaigns, on 2013, 2014 and 2015 by making a periodic enumeration of larvas and adults. They were been realized in Hadjout, the Metidja and Mascara (west of Algeria). This study showed the succession of four peaks from May to September in Hadjout on the carignan wine which pilosity on the lower face of the limb has compared with cinsault and Grenache. Indeed the numbers of the green leafhopper on carignan especially in second generation exceed widely the recommended threshold. Moreover, it would seem that thelest vigorous vine to this leafhopper: Carignan accuse a strong depigmentation of the limb 50% followed with 40% and 10% respectively by Grenache and cinsault. However, no presence was revealed on the same vines of Mascara with 0% for all vignard. These studies allowed us to conclude that the populations evolution of the green leafhoppers depends of several factors such as the temperature, vigor of the vineand hairiness of its limbus.
Importance of solitarious desert locust population dynamics : lessons from historical survey data in Algeria.
(2016) LAZAR, Mohamed; PIOU, Cyril; DOUMANDJI-MITICHE, Bahia; LECOQ, Michel
The desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk al) (Orthoptera: Acrididae), is a major pest and well known in its gregarious phase. However, it is not well understood during recession periods, when the solitarious phase populations are discrete. Nonetheless, these populations are at the origin of the invasions when ecological conditions become favourable. This lack of knowledge of the solitarious phase individuals impedes effective preventive management of this pest. Archive data collected in Algeria from 1980 to 2011 were used to analyse solitarious population dynamics across the Algerian Sahara where some outbreak areas are located that play a major role in the invasion process. The results confirm previous empirical observations on solitarious population dynamics. First, a clear difference could be documented between the northern and southern Saharan regions of Algeria concerning the locust dynamics and the impact of environmental conditions. The importance of runoff was clear to create suitable habitats over a long period and to very distant places from rainy areas. Second, a link, on an annual basis, between green vegetation and presence of solitarious locusts was found. Third, statistical relationships between various locations demonstrated a clear regional dynamics. Our study confirmed the importance of migrations of solitarious populations among Algerian regions and more generally within the recession area of this species. The operational implications of these findings are multiple. First, they confirm the need of a flexible and scalable preventive system during the year, from 1 year to another and with a clear distinction between the northern and southern Saharan areas of Algeria. Second, they also confirm the necessity for the inclusion of wadis and soil moisture estimations from remote sensing in geographic information systems for preventive management. And third, they clearly illustrate the importance to target solitarious locusts for more efficient preventive survey operations.
Inventaire de trois peuplements d'Orthoptères dans le Parc National de Taza (Jijel, Algérie)
(2013) Moad, ROUIBAH; Salaheddine, DOUMANDJI
Dans ce travail, un inventaire exhaustif des Orthoptères du Parc National de Taza (Algérie) a été établi. La méthode utilisée est celle de dénombrement sur quadrats de neuf mètres carrés de surface à raison d’un par station et par mois en réalisant à chaque fois cinq répétitions. Le présent travail a été réalisé dans une friche à Taza, une garrigue à Tifraouene et un maquis à Guerrouch. 24 espèces au total ont été recensées réparties entre 22 Caelifères et 2 Ensifères. La majorité des Caelifères sont des Acrididae. Cette dernière est répartie principalement entre trois sous familles: les Oedipodinae, les Gomphocerinae, et à un degrès moindre les Acridinae, et ce notamment à Tifraouène et à Guerrouch. La richesse spécifique à montré que les stations de Taza et de Tifraouène possèdent respectivement 17 et 18 espèces, Guerrouch par contre, est relativement moins riche avec 14 espèces uniquement.

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